This research was conducted as a part of the U.S. Census Bureau’s Evidence Building Project Series. Any opinions and conclusions expressed herein are those of the authors and do not represent the views of the U.S. Census Bureau. The Census Bureau has ensured appropriate access and use of confidential data and has reviewed these results for disclosure avoidance protection (Project P-7523134: CBDRB-FY22-CES018-005, CBDRB-FY22-CES018-012, CBDRB-FY22-CES018-016, CBDRB-FY22-420, CBDRB-FY23-0405, CBDRB-FY23-0464, CBDRB-FY25-0008, CBDRB-FY25-0028, and CBDRB-FY25-0462). We would like to thank Joshua Bricker, Taegan Mullane, and Iriliana Shala for excellent research assistance. We are also grateful to Janet Currie, Daniel Dench, Maria Perez-Patron, and Heather Royer for valuable feedback, as well as seminar and conference participants at Columbia University School of Public Health, Duke University, Harvard University (Opportunity Insights), Illinois Institute of Technology, the Los Angeles Guild of Reproductive Health, NBER New York, NBER Summer Institute (Children’s and Health Care Meetings), NYU Langone Department of Adolescent and Child Psychiatry, Stanford University, UC Berkeley (Health Policy), University of Kentucky, University of Utah School of Business, the USC Center for Health Journalism, and Weill Cornell Medicine. We are grateful to Jennifer Troyan and staff at the California Maternal, Child, and Adolescent Health Division for providing additional information regarding health statistics published by the California Department of Public Health. We would also like to thank Ellen Badley, Sandra Bannerman, Colin Chew, Heather Fukushima, Steven Hoang, Amanda Jackson, Michelle Miles, Eric Neuhauser, Jenn Rico, and other staff at the California Department of Public Health (CDPH) for their help in accessing restricted California birth records, as well as Chris Crettol, Betty Henderson- Sparks, Jasmine Neeley, and other staff at the California Department of Health Care Access and Information (formerly the Office of Statewide Health Planning and Development) for help in accessing hospital discharge data, and Victoria McCoy-Cosentino at NYU for help with data use agreements. We would also like to thank Ashley Austin, Casey Blalock, Scott Boggess, Clint Carter, Melissa Chiu, Diane Cronkite, Denise Flanagan-Doyle, Adam Galemore, Katie Genadek, Katlyn King, Shawn Klimek, Shirley Liu, Kathryn Mcnamara, Bonnie Moore, John Sullivan and other staff at Census, Robert Goerge and Leah Gjertson at Chapin Hall, and the Laura and John Arnold Foundation’s support under their initiative to use linked data to advance evidence-based policymaking for help with the linkages to Census-held data. This research was supported by the National Institute on Aging under R01-AG059731. The views expressed herein are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the National Bureau of Economic Research.
